Sociální pedagogika | Social Education

ISSN 1805-8825

E: editorsoced@fhs.utb.cz

W: http://www.soced.cz

Educational practices and strategies that promote inclusion:

Examples from the U.S.

Renáta Tichá, Brian Abery, & Laurie Kincade

To cite this article: Tichá, R., Abery, B., & Kincade, L. (2018). Educational practices

and strategies that promote inclusion: Examples from the U.S. Sociální

pedagogika/Social Education, 6(2), 43–62.

https://doi.org/10.7441/soced.2018.06.02.03

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.7441/soced.2018.06.02.03

Published online: 15 November 2018

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This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).

Copyright © 2018 by the author and publisher, TBU in Zlín.

Sociální pedagogika | Social Education

43

volume 6, issue 2, pp. 43–62, November 2018

https://doi.org/10.7441/soced.2018.06.02.03

ISSN 1805-8825

Educational practices and strategies that promote

inclusion: Examples from the U.S.

Renáta Tichá,a

Abstract: In this article, the authors review promising practices

and strategies that have been demonstrated to support and

Brian Abery,b

promote inclusive education in the U.S. at school, in classrooms,

Laurie Kincadec

in small groups, and at individual levels. Selected strategies that

promote instructional, social, and psychological inclusion (e.g.,

response to intervention, inclusive service learning, guided

reading, and incremental rehearsal) are discussed in detail.

Contact

Potential adaptions and adoption of these strategies are

a,b,c University of Minnesota

suggested in order to assist in promoting inclusion within the

Institute on Community

Czech education system.

Integration

150 Pillsbury Dr SE

Keywords: strategies for inclusive education; instructional, social

Minneapolis, MN 55455

and psychological inclusion; Czech Republic

a tich0018@umn.edu

b

Postupy a strategie inckluzivního vzdělávání:

abery001@umn.edu

c gradx003@umn.edu

příklady z USA

Abstrakt: V tomto článku autoři uvádí příklady dobré praxe

Correspondence:

a příklady strategií, které podporují inkluzivní vzdělávání v USA,

tich0018@umn.edu

a to na úrovni škol, tříd, skupin a jednotlivců. Blíže jsou

představeny vybrané strategie podporující inkluzi v oblasti

Copyright © 2018 by the author

and publisher, TBU in Zlín.

výukové, sociální a psychologické (jde např. o response to

This work is licensed under the

intervention, inclusive, service learning, guided reading and

Creative Commons Attribution

incremental rehearsal). Jsou zde navrženy možnosti adaptace

International License (CC BY).

a použití těchto strategií, a to s ohledem na inkluzivní vzdělávání

v České republice.

Klíčová slova: strategie pro inkluzivní vzdělávání; instrukční,

sociální a psychologická inkluze; Česká republika

1

Introduction

Across the U.S. and Europe, schools and teachers currently experience a wide variety of diversity in

their classrooms, including children with different language skills, disabilities, and social backgrounds

as well as some who are gifted and talented. In recent years, educators and policymakers in the Czech

Republic (CR) have recognized that new educational strategies are needed for the educational system

of the country to be responsive to the democratic principles of a European society that include

reducing educational inequality (“Strategy for education policy,” 2018). Even though the Czech

Republic is a relatively homogeneous society, it cannot ignore the needs of its ethnic and cultural

minorities, including people of Slovak, Polish, German, Ukrainian, Vietnamese, etc. descent, and the

Roma population.

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Since the ratification of the U.N. Conference for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Czech society

has initiated moving forward on a path for the educational inclusion of its approximately 71,879

children in compulsory education with special educational needs (SEN), which represent 8.6% of the

school-age population (“Education and disability/special needs,” 2018). Among students with SEN,

there are also those with disabilities. The most common disabilities in the CR, as noted by Felcmanová,

Klusáček, and Hrstka (2015), are specific learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, multiple disabilities, and behavior disorders. In the country there are also children with SEN because of their

socially disadvantaged backgrounds. Approximately 100,000 or 9% of primary-school children in the

CR come from financially disadvantaged backgrounds. This includes families who cannot afford to heat

their homes where 3-4 persons live together in one room, as well as those receiving governmental

living subsidies for other reasons. According to Felcmanová et al. (2015), there are also approximately

11,000 or 1.3% of primary-school children in the country who are traumatized and 2,000 or .3% who

are neglected. Another aspect/factor of diversity in the current population is nationality (and therefore

one’s primary language) with approximately 16,400 or 2% of primary-school children (mainly living in

Prague) who are not ethnically Czech and, among them, children from families with refugee status

constitute a very small part.

In order to effectively address the varied learning and social needs of students from diverse

backgrounds, it is necessary to implement teaching strategies designed to differentiate instruction.

Instructional differentiation can have many forms. It typically starts through an examination of

instruction and an adjustment of its intensity. Such adjustments include the size of the instructional

group (whole group, small group, individualized instruction), as well as the frequency and duration of

the intervention. Moreover, it entails decisions about using a direct or a constructivist pedagogical

approach, and the frequency with which progress monitoring will be utilized (Vaugh & Wanzek, 2014).

Once decisions are made with respect to these issues, specific instructional strategies can be

implemented to address the needs of the whole class, small group, or an individual student who is

struggling with the goal of promoting learning within an inclusive rather than segregated setting.

The Czech action plan for inclusive education 2016-18, aligned with Strategy 2020, addresses five

critical elements that are necessary for an effective implementation: (1) the proposition that the

sooner an inclusive approach is implemented, the better it will be for students, (2) the idea that

inclusive educational benefits students both with and without special educational needs, (3) the need

for highly qualified specialists, (4) the creation of support systems and mechanisms for financing, and

(5) the need for reliable data (“Akční plán,” 2018). One could argue that a key component is missing

from the Czech inclusive education action plan, namely an instructional approach supporting inclusive

education. Having highly qualified specialists is an important goal. However, being able to access and

implement effective methodologies to create instructionally, socially, and psychologically inclusive

environments is of equal importance.

The following sections of this article focus on systems, classroom, small group, and individualized

instructional strategies developed and implemented in the U.S. that promote different aspects of

inclusion. The reader is advised to review the U.S.-based strategies and to consider how they can be

adapted for potential use in the Czech educational context to facilitate inclusion.

2

Promising strategies that promote educational inclusion

Since the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (now referred to as the Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act – IDEA) in 1975 (Lechtenberger, 2010), programs and strategies have

been developed and implemented in the U.S. that have been demonstrated to bring academic and/or

social benefits to students with and without special educational needs who are educated in inclusive

environments. The history of researching evidence for the benefits of inclusive education in the US

with potential implications for the Czech Republic and other Central and Eastern European countries

is discussed by Abery, Tichá, and Kincade (2017). Programs and strategies developed in this area have

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focused on a variety of outcomes associated with inclusive education with the common goal of

enhancing the quality of instruction, academic outcomes, and/or social opportunities provided to

children with SEN.

Instructional inclusion. Despite the number of years during which children with SEN have been included

in general education classrooms in the U.S., many teachers still struggle to create educational

environments that meet the needs of all students. Instructional inclusion is a key component of an

effective inclusive education implementation framework, along with physical, social, and psychological

inclusion. Effective instructional inclusion has been demonstrated to be supported through a variety

of strategies including the following: response to intervention (RTI), differentiated instruction,

effective utilization of teaching assistants, and integrated learning (Hattie, 2009, 2015; Lawrence-

Brown, 2004).

Social and Psychological Inclusion. The goal of social inclusion is to promote ongoing, positive and social

interactions between students with special educational needs and their peers. Psychological inclusion

refers to a person feeling valued and accepted as a member of the group at school and in the

community. In addition to physical and instructional inclusion, the opportunity to develop and

maintain friendships and to experience a sense of belonging are critical aspects of inclusive education

(Giangreco, 2003). In the U.S., numerous strategies have been found to enhance the inclusion of

students with SEN (Bond & Castagnera, 2006; Carter & Kennedy, 2006; Fredrickson & Turner, 2003;

Martinez & Carspecken, 2008; McDonnel, Mathot-Buckner, Thorson, & Fister, 2001). These include

circles of friends, inclusive service learning, and social networking programs both in and outside of

classroom.

3

A systems approach to inclusion

Response to intervention (RTI). RTI is a U.S-developed multi-tier approach to the early identification,

prevention, and support of students who are academically struggling to bridge the achievement gap

of children and youth from different backgrounds. RTI is based on a preventative, tiered system of

instruction that provides struggling students with supports before a referral for special education

evaluation and services. It is an instructional problem-solving model based on an early screening and

formative assessment, a data-based instructional decision-making, a tiered approach to targeted

intervention, and a high-quality instruction at multiple levels (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006; Shapiro, Zigmond,

Wallace, & Marston, 2011; Grosch & Volpe, 2013). In order to ensure that appropriate supports are present at all school levels, RTI is implemented on a school-wide basis. The purpose of this system-wide approach is to provide educators with the tools to assure that all students are learning, to support

students falling behind academically with targeted interventions to prevent their identification for

special educational services, and to foster collaboration between general and special educators in the

development and effective implementation of targeted interventions for students with SEN to ensure

that they are making adequate progress. Response to Intervention (RTI) has mostly been implemented

in the U.S. at the elementary school level, even though this preventative framework is increasingly

being applied for older students in secondary schools (King, Lemons, & Hill, 2012).

Assuming that the instructional resources of a school are conceptualized as a pyramid, support within

the context of RTI can be distributed into four quadrants (see Figure 1). The largest quadrant at the

bottom of the pyramid represents the general education (core) curriculum delivered within a general

education setting by general education teachers (Tier-1). This instruction should be of high quality,

evidenced-based, and effective for the majority of students (approximately 80%). Students who do not

respond positively to the core curriculum are provided with Tier-2 supports. These typically include

small group, targeted instruction focused on the development of basic academic skills (e.g., explicit

phonics or reading comprehension instruction). Studies in the U.S. suggest that students who receive

Tier-2 supports show significant gains in their academic performance (Gersten et al., 2008). When

students do not respond positively, more frequent and intensive instruction with fewer students in the

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small group is implemented at Tier-3. At this level, not only is the group smaller, but the frequency or

intensity of intervention is increased. Those students who, despite taking part in multiple interventions

at Tiers-2 and 3, still do not demonstrate adequate learning as evidenced by progress monitoring data

are referred for special education evaluation and services (Tier-4).

Figure 1. Response to intervention (RTI) framework

The RTI framework differs significantly from the previously used student-deficit models since it focuses

on creating an educational environment supportive of all students. Within the framework, screening

and progress monitoring assessments are essential. Universal screening ideally occurs three times a

year (fall, winter, spring) for all students with the purpose of identifying those who are at risk and of

grouping those who are struggling into instructional Tiers. This early prevention strategy ensures that

students do not fall through the cracks of the educational system and lag behind their peers. For

students who receive supports at Tiers-2 and 3, a variety of short (i.e., 1 to 3 minute) formative,

progress monitoring assessments are administered throughout the school year, sometimes on a

weekly basis (in Tier 3), to determine if students are profiting from instruction. In most cases, the

formative assessments used in RTI are Curriculum-Based Measures (CBM; Deno, 1992, 2003).

Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) utilizes classroom and other instructional materials to directly

assess student progress. This ensures that interventions being utilized are effective and provides

teachers with the opportunity to individualize instruction to meet the needs of each student. Following

the RTI framework, students are then placed into tiered instructional groups based on their screening

data. This placement takes into consideration both their academic strengths and challenges. Within

the context of these relatively homogeneous skills groups, differentiated instruction is then employed.

A key concept to understand at the time of implementing RTI is that the primary aim of the approach

is to improve instruction. At Tier-1, this entails ensuring that all students in the class receive high quality

instruction with a research base to support its effectiveness among the children and youth with whom

it is being used. In those urban districts in the U.S. with a diversified population, for example, high

quality Tier-1 instruction applied to the reading stage should provide evidence not only to support its

use with students whose first language at home is English, but also for English Language Learners. At

Tiers-2 and 3 the focus is on finding those approaches to instruction that best fit the needs of specific

students. This might entail adapting how material is presented, how often students are provided with

skill acquisition opportunities, as well as how mastery is assessed. The RTI framework is effectively

summarized by McTaggart (2018) who stated, “If they don’t learn the way you teach… teach the way

they learn” (p. 21).

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At some point in their careers, most teachers have implemented some version of differentiated

instruction, whether it entailed altering a curriculum, giving some students more time to complete an

assignment, or providing supplemental instruction within a small group context. However, there are,

more systematic ways of differentiating instruction in order to help ensuring educational success

within inclusive classroom settings.

Students who respond well to the general education curriculum continue to receive core instruction.

At-risk students who need further support receive differentiated instruction within the general

education classroom. Differentiated instruction can be administered by a trained teaching assistant,

special educators or a general education teacher. For example, in mathematics, a 6th-grade class might

be practicing algebra. The 6th-grade teacher would instruct the majority of the class on algebra, while

a small group might be simultaneously attending a class, where a teaching assistant or a special

educator is reviewing fundamental, pre-algebraic mathematics skills, answering questions about past

instruction, and/or implementing the same lesson, but at a slower pace and with additional supports

for students who need to build their basic math skills. This educator may also include pre-teaching (i.e.,

preparing students for an upcoming lesson) within the small group sessions.

In every school, a relatively small number of students do not progress at an acceptable pace even after

receiving multiple types of Tier-2 instruction. These students, often referred to as “non-responders,”

are not assumed to have disabilities, but rather they are seen as in need of greater differentiation of

instruction. Potentially they could respond well to more intense targeted instruction (i.e., a 1:1 to 1:3

teacher-student ratio) or more frequent target instruction at a Tier-3, or to an alternative curriculum.

Special educators typically assume responsibility for the implementation of more intensive instruction

with these students, but they do so within the context of the general educational setting (sometimes

referred to as the push-in model). It is preferred that teachers with more experience serve students

with the highest needs (i.e., special educators or instructional specialists).

RTI was initially developed to support K-5 students. The approach, however, has merit at the secondary

level (grades 6-12) as well. Fuchs, Fuchs, and Compton (2010) propose a modified RTI model at the

middle and high school level. In their model, the RTI Framework used at the K-5 level is overturned and

practitioners are encouraged to place students with severe academic discrepancies immediately in the

most intensive level of the RTI framework (Tier-3) even as they continue to participate in general

educational classes and receive primary prevention to further acquire content knowledge. In a related

way, in terms of accountability for student outcomes, the goal of accountability and intensity within

RTI at middle and high school is to ensure that teachers view their mission as reducing and eliminating

already existing, sizable academic deficits. Therefore, the focus is on monitoring RTI in order to

determine when important academic benchmarks are achieved for the purpose of transitioning

students to the lower tiers of the RTI pyramid with less intensive and more standard or normalized

levels of the prevention system. Conceptualizing RTI at middle and high school in this way introduces

new opportunities to improve outcomes for students in order to overcome sizable academic deficits

and restructures existing opportunities.

3.1 Classroom level (Tier 1) approaches to inclusion

A truly inclusive approach to education creates a balance between ensuring that students receive the

instruction they need to make progress academically and experiencing a sense of belonging and social

acceptance within their schools and classrooms. Therefore the implementation of the RTI framework

must address the need to provide students with SENs with the opportunity to develop social networks

and build social capital. This can be accomplished at best through assuring that the core curriculum

reaches as many students as possible, making learning meaningful to diverse groups of children and

youth and ensuring that all members of a class feel socially and psychologically included.

Citing the lack of social and psychological inclusion of secondary students with SEN, Abery and Simunds

(2006) developed the Yes I Can Social Inclusion Program (YIC) for high school and middle school

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students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). In this Tier-1 program, peers are

trained to serve as social inclusion bridge-builders. The primary goal of a bridge-builder is to connect

and support the development of social relationships between the students with SEN with whom they

work and their fellow students with similar interests and values. More specifically, the aim is to

facilitate students with SENs in developing social capital. Bourdieu (1986) and others (e.g., Bates &

Davis, 2004; Dika & Singh, 2002; Trainor, 2008), who used the construct in their study of young people with disabilities, define it as tangible and symbolic resources that are derived from a person’s

connectedness to society via their social relationships networks. Social capital, along with capital in

other forms (e.g., cultural and economic capital, or currency and monetary resources), contributes to

a person’s symbolic and material wealth, status, and power. The program was successfully

implemented in over 100 schools in the U.S. in three different ways: as an after-school activity, a before

school social group, or an integral part of academic classes.

Evaluations of program impact (Abery & Simunds, 2006) suggest positive outcomes for students with

SEN as well as peers who serve a bridge-builders. Results indicate that students with IDD who take part

in the program make greater numbers of new friends and increase the level of emotional closeness

they have with existing friends to a significantly greater extent than young people who are members

of comparison groups. In addition, program participants and their families report significant increases

in the number of inclusive, community-based recreation and leisure activities in which their sons and

daughters with disabilities engage. Over the course of the program, students who serve as bridge-

builders have been found to improve their leadership skills considerably than young people in

comparison groups and to develop more positive attitudes with respect to people with disabilities.

If full educational inclusion is to be realized, effective strategies are needed to alter both the attitudes

of administrators, teachers, and peers toward students with SEN and the overall school culture

(Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotheram-Fuller, 2007; Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007; Lohrmann, Boggs,

& Bambara, 2006). Students with SEN need to be viewed by members of the community not only as

children and youth in need of supports and accommodations, but as individuals who have talents, gifts

and abilities as well as the capacity to give something back to their community and make it a better

place to live. Inclusive service learning, which is a relatively new approach developed specifically to

support social, psychological and instructional inclusion, has the potential to fill that need.

Inclusive service learning (ISL). Service learning is a method of teaching and learning that connects

classroom lessons with meaningful service to the community (CNCS, 1999). It involves students in

academic skill development while they serve their communities creating a context that addresses

genuine needs. Service learning programs include reflection on both service activities and the

skills/knowledge acquired during their length. The inclusive s ervice learning intentionally brings

together students with and without SEN to take part in this way of learning and prepares them to

support each other while developing their own academic problem-solving and leadership skills.

Because of the emphasis on active learning in real-life settings, ISL has the potential to reach all

learners due to its explicit academic focus and to the extent to which the philosophy of inclusion is

integrated into the program. Researchers at the University of Minnesota and other partners developed

ISL curricula both for elementary (Vandercook & Montie, 2010), and secondary levels (Abery, Halpin,

Iland, Braun, & Stenhjem, 2011).

High quality ISL features (see Figure 2) are: (a) reflection and integrated learning; (b) problem-based

learning focused on significant benefit and genuine need; (c) student voice; (d) collaboration; (e) civic

engagement and responsibility; and (f) inclusion (Kaye, 2004). Each of these characteristics contribute

to enhanced academic, behavioral, psychological, and social outcomes while challenging current

stereotypes about students with SEN (Ainscow, 2005; Polat, 2011).

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Tichá, Abery, & Kincade / Educational practices and strategies…

Figure 2. Characteristics of high quality Inclusive Service Learning (ISL)

Integrated learning. A critical component of ISL is that service projects are linked directly to academic

learning objectives such that classroom learning contributes to service which, in turn, enhances

classroom learning. A key instructional strategy that allows this integrative approach is the reflection

process through which students are encouraged to understand their experiences by means of a variety

of activities (Eyler, 2002). Reflection can take the form of discussion, journal writing, debate, letter

writing, or making informational videos (Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2004). Reflecting on the relationship

between problem solving and learning is a critical component of ISL and it supports the construction

of knowledge (Salomon, 1983). Applying what is learned in the classroom in order to solve community

problems makes learning more concrete for those students who are not fully engaged in school.

Significant benefit and genuine need. A key feature of ISL is its focus on learning while addressing real

community problems. This approach, drawn from Problem-Based Learning (PBL), involves students

who will be working in teams and who will learn by solving real problems based upon community

needs. Students grapple with issues that offer an engaging context for learning. As they define the

scope of a problem, the group identifies and organizes relevant ideas and prior knowledge. Instructors

act as guides, asking questions, raising issues, and ensuring full participation (Mayo, Donnelly, &

Schwartz, 1995).

Student voice. Student voice, which represents an essential element of ISL based on Deci and Ryan’s

(1985) self-determination theory (SDT), is associated with the belief that educational outcomes are

optimized when young people exercise self-determination (SD) over components of the learning

environment and engage in autonomous, self-regulated learning. SD involves a combination of skills,

knowledge, and beliefs that support people in taking desired degrees of control over their lives in

important areas (Abery & Stancliffe, 2003). In their systematic review of the impact of SD on academic

functioning, Konrad, Fowler, Walker, Test, and Wood (2007) found effect sizes, reported as points of

non-overlapping data (PND), of 0-100% with a median of 60%. These findings are supportive of those

of Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, and Wood (2001) who found PNDs ranging from 64-100% with

a median of 95% and effect sizes ranged from - 2.23 to 26.48 with a median of .60, indicating a

moderate effect.

Cooperative learning. Using cooperative learning (CL) strategies is one of the hallmarks of SL. CL

involves more than working together on a project, as it requires teachers to structure cooperative

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interdependence among students. Elements of CL include positive interdependence, equal

participation, individual accountability, and simultaneous interaction (Kagan, 1994).

Civic engagement and responsibility. Young people today are less likely than their counterparts in

recent history to exhibit the characteristics of citizenship (Flanagan & Levine, 2010; Lopez et al., 2006).

Engagement in extracurricular activities in high school and feelings of social connectedness to the

community are related to engagement in adulthood (McFarland & Thomas, 2006). Civic engagement

is a critical aspect of ISL and builds needed social capital (Segura, Pachon, & Woods, 2001). In addition,

student involvement in civic affairs is positively related to academic achievement (Davila & Mora,

2007).

The impact of inclusion: A “value added” aspect of service learning. Inclusive service learning (ISL)

emphasizes embracing diversity by structuring the SL process for all students, including those with SEN

and/or disabilities. The intent is to blend academic learning with the building of social capital. Research

has found both socially and academically positive effects of inclusion in ISL programs for students with

SEN (Salend & Duhaney, 1999; Moore, Gilbreath, & Maiuri, 1998). Importantly, such inclusion also demonstrated positive effects on typically developing peers. By working together to address common

problems, students with and without SEN learn about each other, discovering the gifts, capacities, and

talents each one possesses as well as their commonalities. Discovering that we are a lot more alike

than different places social relationships between members of the two groups within a decidedly

different context and has the potential to lead to greater mutual understanding and support.

The Together We Make a Difference: Inclusive service learning program (ISL; Abery et al., 2011) closely

follows SL Standards for Quality Practice (K-12, 2018), including meaningful service, links to curriculum

and standards, reflection, diversity, duration and intensity. The structure and sequence of the lessons

of the program are based on the characteristics of high quality SL (Kaye, 2004). An additional strength

of the program is its alignment with the Common Core State Standards adopted by many states in the

U.S. Lessons for the program were written using a direct instruction approach with each lesson

following a standard format that consists in different aspects such as purpose, instructor preparation,

materials, adaptations for participation, activity steps, and learner and instructor reflection.

The program, which is available in both elementary and secondary school editions, has a structured

format (see figure 3) and is intended to be infused into the daily curriculum. Participants learn how to

connect with their community, conduct research via PBL, confirm their conclusions, and plan,

implement, and evaluate SL projects. The program has 3 phases (see Figure 3) including the following:

(1) Building community, (2) Building capacity, planning, & implementing, and (3) Communicating &

celebrating. Phases are designed to introduce explicitly ISL and prerequisite skills and do not assume

that students already possess the ability to undertake effectively ISL (Neiberger-Miller & Zurcher, 2012;

Ragsdale & Saylor, 2012). An additional reason for such structure of the curriculum is to promote implementation with high fidelity such that it can be effectively delivered by any high-quality teacher.

Figure 3. Phases of service learning

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Research evidence. Evidence with respect to the effectiveness of the Together We Make a Difference

program was generated in a quasi-experimental study in 2008-09 with 14 schools in three U.S. States

(Minnesota, California, and North Carolina) with over 365 elementary and secondary students taking

part in it (Abery & Halpin, 2009). Results indicated significant pre-, post-test differences between treatment and comparison groups with respect to self-determination, social inclusion, and civic

responsibility. In addition, although no significant differences in oral reading fluency were reported,

both behavioral observation and teacher reports indicated significantly higher student academic

engagement among members of the ISL groups both during ISL lessons as well as other academic

subjects.

Additional research on ISL demonstrated that it is an intervention that can potentially engage high-risk

students, prevent dropout, and facilitate positive attitudes toward academic achievement, the

community, future plans, and school socialization. Participation also demonstrated to enhance

academic outcomes as well as lead to enhanced citizenship, civic engagement, and social responsibility

(Billig, 2002; Billig, Jesse, & Grimley, 2008; Davila & Mora, 2007; Klute & Billig, 2002; Kraft & Wheeler,

2003; Laird & Black, 2018; Moore & Sandholtz, 1999; Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2004; Zoerink, Magafas,

& Pawelko, 1997).

3.2

Small group (Tier-2) approach to inclusion

Small-group supplemental instruction is needed for students who lag behind their peers in the core

curriculum in order to enhance their ability to process core instruction more effectively. One approach

of this kind which is widely used in U.S. schools is the guided reading (Fountas & Pinnel, 1996). The

guided reading is a small-group teaching strategy used within the general education classroom to

enhance student reading skills. It is part of a balanced literacy approach endorsed by the National

Reading Panel (2000) and the National Council of Teachers of English (2002). This approach is used primarily at the elementary school level when students are developing their reading skills. Guided

reading books are, however, available up to grade 12. The approach is based on the belief that all

students can become literate by using the principle of differentiated instruction. Students are divided

into groups of 4-8 individuals based on their reading performance, they are given reading material that

matches their stage of reading development, and they take part in scaffolded reading lessons.

Grouping for guided reading should not be homogeneous, but flexible, varied and temporary to allow

students to support one another, feel part of a community of readers and to change when needed

(Laquinta, 2006).

Guided reading lessons, including preparation, consist of the following components: (1) Selection of

appropriate text, (2) Introduction of the text to students (understanding the problem and plot), (3)

Prompting students to interpret illustrations, (4) Reading the text (out loud or silently), (5) Discussion

of text, (6) Teaching points - explaining how punctuating conveys meaning, and (7) Word work –

providing information about word meaning (Fountas & Pinnell, 2012; Laquinta, 2006). Walking students through these steps provides them with strategies to use while reading that will support their

becoming fluent readers who comprehend as much information as possible from the text.

Good pedagogy is critical during the Guided Reading process. Teachers must create appropriate

groupings, select materials at the right level of challenge for readers, and use effective prompting

strategies when needed to build both reading fluency and comprehension. The prompts teachers are

designed to encourage self-monitoring (e.g., Where you right?), self-correcting (e.g., I like how you

corrected yourself.), prediction (e.g., What do you think will happen next?), and confirmation (e.g.,

Where you right?) while students are reading. Similarly, teachers also cue students to understand

sound-symbol correspondence, meaning of words, and sentence structure (Laquinta, 2006).

The level of reading material is judged according to several criteria: (a) Book and print features (e.g.,

length, layout, graphic features), (b) Vocabulary, (c) Sentence complexity, (d) Content, (e) Text

structure (e.g., fiction/nonfiction), (f) Language and literacy features (e.g., literary/figurative language,

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dialogue), and (g) Themes and ideas (Fountas & Pinnell, 2001). The books can then be numbered for

easy identification and selection. Figure 4 (see below) is an example of a lesson plan form and

bookmark with teacher prompts used in guided reading instruction.

Small group guided reading

Book title: ________________________________ Level: ___

Date: ____________________ Genre: __________________

Lesson: _________________________

Beginning:

Background knowledge:

Vocabulary:

(Picture walk)

Intro. focus of lesson:

Middle:

End:

Running Record:

Assessment/Extension:

Figure 4. Guided readi ng sample lesson plan (Guided reading, 2018)

Research evidence. Numerous studies have demonstrated significant, positive results for the use of

guided reading within a balanced literacy instruction framework (Kamps et al., 2007; Reutzel, Petscher

& Spichtig, 2012; Gaffner, Johnson, Torres-Elias, & Dryden, 2014). Kamps et al. (2007) found that guided reading benefited students who were 1st and 2nd grade English language learners. Reutzel et al.

(2012) examined the effectiveness of a guided silent reading program for 3rd graders who were having

reading difficulties and demonstrated significant reading gains. Gaffner et al. (2014) found that a

guided reading strategy benefited elementary students reading below grade level. Several other

studies examined the effectiveness of Guided reading as a strategy to use within inclusive settings and

specific target populations and reported promising results. Lyons and Thompson (2012) found that

guided reading improved reading of students in an inclusive middle school setting. Schirmer and

Schaffer (2010) and Schaffer and Schirmer (2010) reported that the guided reading approach improved

the reading results of students who were deaf. Denton, Fletcher, Taylor, Barth, and Vaughn (2014)

utilized a randomized experimental design to compare guided reading with explicit instruction and

typical school instruction. Results indicated that both guided reading and explicit instruction were

more effective than typical school reading pedagogy.

3.3

Individualized intervention (Tier-3) approach to inclusion

In order to succeed academically, students need to be able to process information with speed,

accuracy, and without hesitation. This set of skills are referred to as academic fluency. In recent years,

most of the research has been devoted to the study of academic fluency in the areas of reading,

writing, and mathematics. In reading, fluency is defined as the ability to read, both silently and aloud,

with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. In writing, it refers to the capacity of students to write

fluently and smoothly from word to word, phrase to phrase, and sentence to sentence. Math fluency

is the ability to recall the answers to basic math facts automatically and without hesitation. In reading,

fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.

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Incremental rehearsal. Incremental rehearsal (IR) is a fluency intervention designed as an

individualized intensive intervention that utilizes flash cards to increase rate (i.e., speed) and accuracy

(i.e., correctness) of student responses to academic content. Most of the research for IR has been

completed for improving fluency for high-frequency sight words in reading (e.g., Burns, Dean, & Foley,

2004; Joseph, 2006; Nist & Joseph, 2008). There is additional research, however, that also supports this intervention for simple math facts (e.g., Burns, 2005; Codding, Archer, & Connell, 2010), letter

sounds (Bunn, Burns, Hoffman, & Newman, 2005; Volpe, Burns, DuBois, & Zaslofsky, 2011), and basic writing (Garcia, 2012). This strategy is typically used at the elementary level at the time of building

basic academic skills.

Incremental rehearsal is best conceptualized as a Tier-3 intervention suited for those students for

whom formative assessment data indicate past Tier-2 efforts that have not been successful in

supporting increased growth in basic academic skills. By working with a single student, instructors can

both monitor and maximize academic engaged time, while differentiating instruction to meet the

specific needs of each student in the classroom who requires this approach. Although it is labor

intensive because it requires a 1-to-1 student-instructor ratio and a good deal of individualized

preparation, one of the strengths of the approach is that IR does not necessarily need to be

administered by a teacher. Studies have shown that both teaching assistants and well-trained

volunteers can implement the approach successfully if provided with proper training and oversight.

This strategy is used primarily at the elementary school level, but it has also been used in later grades

as a pre-teaching strategy, e.g. for content specific vocabulary.

The IR Process. IR is best suited to support students’ developing fundamental skills in basic academic

areas (i.e., reading, writing, and math) with a focus on increasing their fluency or ability to process

academic stimuli (e.g., text, a math computation) accurately and quickly. Sessions are typically of short

duration (5-10 minutes) to maximize engagement, but take place on a frequent basis (i.e., 3-5

times/week). It uses a well-researched, structured process of introducing academic material that has

to be mastered yet, interspersed with material for which a student has demonstrated understanding

as context for developing a high degree of fluency.

In order to improve student fluency in reading high-frequency words, for example, a teacher might

create a deck of flashcards with high-frequency words typed or written on them. The teacher or a

teaching assistant would then administer the flashcards to the student to determine the known and

unknown words in the stack. Unknown and known words would subsequently be placed in their own

piles. The instructor would then select 1 to 3 cards that contain sight words the student did not know

(depending on the student’s level of attention and ability to learn new unknown words) and 8 to 9

cards on which are written words the student has mastered. The first unknown sight word (U1) is then

presented and taught to the student. The student is then immediately asked to repeat the unknown

word. If he or she is successful, the instructor then selects a sight word from the pile of sight words the

child already knows (K1) and presents it following the presentation of the first unknown card (U1).

After the first known card (K1) is presented, the instructor goes back to the first unknown card (U1)

presenting it a second time. Instructors continue by presenting the second known card (K2), a third

known card (K3) and then repeat their presentation of the card with the first unknown sight word (U1).

The instructor continues presenting the unknown sight word, with additional words the child has

demonstrated that he or she knows after the unknown word, until all 9 known words are presented:

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5, then K6

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5, then K6, then K7

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5, then K6, then K7, then K8

Present U1, then K1, then K2, then K3, then K4, then K5, then K6, then K7, then K8, then K9

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After the first unknown word (U1) is mastered and becomes a known word, one of the other known

words is removed and the newly learned sight word now becomes K1. A new unknown sight word is

then presented, taught, and placed in the sequence (U2). Students are considered successful at

decoding each sight word if they are able to respond within 2 seconds. When a student does not

respond successfully to a sight word, the instructor models the correct word and asks the student to

repeat it. Intervention continues until there are no errors. For improving simple math facts and letter

names or sounds, a similar procedure is followed.

Teacher monitoring and positive reinforcement. Given that IR is implemented on a one-to-one basis, it

is critical that instructors monitor and track student’s performance as well as provide individualized

feedback and reinforcement to students’ progress through the intervention. Teachers can support

students to chart their own progress with each new set of sight words, letters, or math computations

they are attempting to master as well as for appropriate level of engagement and social behavior.

Based on the monitoring of student’s performance, both length and frequency of the sessions can be

adjusted to maximize the progress of the student. As the fluency of students improves, these new skills

need to be integrated into other support programs in which a student is taking part.

Research evidence. A recent meta-analysis (Burns, Zaslofsky, Kanive, & Parker, 2012) provides a perspective with respect to evidence supporting the use of IR as an intervention strategy. Burns and

colleagues found 19 studies of the effectiveness of IR. Based upon an analysis of effective sizes, the

conclusion is that IR is an effective fluency intervention for letter sounds, words, math facts, and

vocabulary words for students with a variety of disabilities, including students who are English

language learners (ELLs; Matchett & Burns, 2009). Moreover, Burns et al. (2012) noted that IR has been studied as an acceptable fluency intervention for students without disabilities, as well as those with

learning disabilities, cognitive impairments, and emotional-behavioral disorders. IR has showed to be

effective across a wide age range of students from preschool to high school. Additional studies

corroborated these findings through comparing IR with other fluency interventions and finding that

gains made through the use of IR typically exceeded those that occurred when other approaches were

used (January, Lovelace, Foster, & Ardoin, 2015; Kupzyk, Daly, & Andersen, 2011; Volpe, Mulé, Briesch,

Joseph, & Burns, 2011). Overall, the theoretical underpinnings of IR align with the hierarchy of learning

academic content: acquisition, fluency, generalization, adaptation (Haring, Lovitt, Eaton, & Hansen,

1978). Once students have fundamental skills and become fluent with basic words, letter sounds, or

math facts, they spend less time and effort decoding or using their fingers to count, thus increasing

fluency and making it easier to access higher order academic content (e.g., comprehension or math

word problems).

4

Conclusions

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (now referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act – IDEA) was first passed by the U.S. Congress in 1975 (Lechtenberger, 2010). In the course of the 40-years that have elapsed since that time, educators in the U.S. have made significant

progress towards the creation of a more inclusive educational system in which all children, including

those with disabilities, are not just physically integrated into general education classrooms, but

experience instructional, social and psychological inclusion. Although many students with SEN in the

U.S. still do not experience what most would refer to as full inclusion, the large percentage of them

(approximately 81%) do spend the majority (more than 80%) of their school time in general education

settings.

Movement of students with SEN in the U.S. from segregated to more inclusive settings as well as efforts

to address academic, social, and behavioral issues so that at-risk children are not unnecessarily

identified as having disabilities, have been supported by the development and use of various strategies

and programs. Among the promising practices there are response to intervention, inclusive service

learning, guided reading, and incremental rehearsal. In many cases, implementation of these strategies

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Tichá, Abery, & Kincade / Educational practices and strategies…

is accompanied by the use of formative assessment that enables educators to monitor student

progress on regular basis and change instructional approaches when current methods are not

demonstrating effectiveness.

The goal of this article was to provide readers with concrete

examples of strategies and approaches that have been used

Successful inclusive

successfully in the U.S. to promote inclusion. It would be

education is only possible

tempting to simply recommend the instructional practices that

when teachers and

have been found to have a high degree of utility in the U.S. and

whose efficacy is supported by a significant body of research to

students are provided

be adopted in other countries committed to the implementation

with effective strategies

of inclusive education. We believe that such an approach,

that address the needs of

however, would be ill advised. As educators have learned in the

U.S., implementing educational programs effectively and with

ALL students, including

high fidelity, is a complex process. Implementers need to take

those who may at some

into consideration a number of factors, the majority of which are

heavily influenced by the specific socio-economic and

point fall behind.

educational environment of the region or country where

inclusion is being implemented including available resources, the

culture, and characteristics of students and families. Each country, either on its own or with supports,

therefore needs to chart its own path toward inclusion based on its societal values, education

legislation, and available supports. This article offers possibilities from the U.S. context that should be

considered for adaptation and a possible implementation or simply as an inspiration for making all

children valued members of an inclusive society.

The Czech Republic, located in the heart of Europe, has a different history both politically and

educationally than the U.S. Geographically, it is a relatively small country and its population, although

diversifying considerably over the past several decades, remains relatively homogeneous. Unlike the

U.S., the Czech Republic has an educational system that is less driven by local and state policies than

those at the federal level. There is one additional distinction between the countries: unlike the U.S.,

the Czech Republic has both signed and ratified The United Nations (“Convention on the rights,” 2018),

decidedly placing it on the path for the enhanced educational inclusion of students with SEN.

Regardless of the existing differences between the U.S. and C.R., the basic principles underlying the

practices and strategies described in this article have the potential to address academic and social

needs of Czech students with SENs. Response to Intervention (RTI) has the potential to serve as a

preventative framework for students who show signs of falling behind academically due to a variety of

language-based, socio-economic, or disability-related reasons. Moreover, this approach is an

important tool for facilitating enhanced collaboration between general and special educators as well

as specialists. Inclusive service learning (ISL) provides a necessary connection between academic

content taught in the classroom and real life in the community that results in teaching and learning

that is both more explicit and applied, thus making it more understandable, meaningful and relevant

to students who are unlikely to benefit from abstract instruction. When service learning is undertaken

in an inclusive manner, it changes peer attitudes towards people with disabilities highlighting the fact

that although students with disabilities may require some additional resources they can be

conceptualized as a resource themselves. Guided reading and incremental rehearsal are strategies that

are not culturally specific with both approaches designed to build basic academic skills in reading and

math of students who require a more individualized approach.

It is our hope that educators, scholars and policymakers in the Czech Republic and other Central and

European countries will find the strategies and approaches presented in this article sufficiently

promising to seek additional information about them and their suitability for being implemented in

the local context. This will require a considerable degree of work since the approaches highlighted in

this article and initially designed to be used in the U.S. educational system will need to be adapted not

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Tichá, Abery, & Kincade / Educational practices and strategies…

only for Czech Republic as a country, but for individual schools which may vary with respect to a wide

variety of factors ranging from resources to students with SENs. Such an effort might, at first, appear

daunting, but general educators should not feel that they are alone in it. University education faculty

in the C.R. must assume the responsibility for adequately preparing both general and special education

teachers as well as related service staff to implement inclusive practices. This will need to entail the

discussion of inclusive education practices in educational coursework as well as the provision of

opportunities to practice their implementation in school settings. Teachers in training will need to have

opportunities to learn about how to use the principles of universal design for learning, differentiated

instruction, and cross-disciplinary collaboration to adapt teaching strategies to meet the needs of

differently-abled students. They will need to acquire data literacy skills so that the progress of students

with SENs can be monitored and the success of their educational approaches evaluated. Just as

importantly, faculty will need not only to speak about inclusion and inclusiveness, but also about model

inclusive behavior in their interactions with students, colleagues, and teachers.

Mutual exchanges of ideas, experiences, and expertise are the hallmark of good scholarships and

educational practices. If inclusive education is to move forward, such interactions must occur between

education faculty both within and outside of the Czech Republic and must include individuals who are

motivated to continue moving forward on the path to inclusion. However, similar exchanges must also

take place between education faculty and their students, the latter feeling free to challenge the status

quo and the ways in which “things have always been done.” Inclusive education in both the U.S. and

C.R. requires open inquiry if the field of education is to continue on an evolutionary path that, at some

point in the near future, will make it possible for all students to receive an equitable education that

prepares them for an inclusive life as adults.

The author declares that this is the original study and text in this form has not been submitted for

publication nor has it been published otherwise.

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Table of Contents

Book title: ________________________________ Level: ___

(“Strategy for education policy,” 2018)

(“Education and disability/special needs,” 2018).

(Vaugh & Wanzek, 2014)

(“Akční plán,” 2018).

(Hattie, 2009, 2015;

Lawrence-

(Bond & Castagnera, 2006; Carter & Kennedy, 2006;