Sociální pedagogika | Social Education 38

Volume 4, Issue 1, pp. 38–56, April 2016

ISSN 1805-8825 | doi:10.7441/soced.2016.04.01.03

Czech version/Česká verze

Educational Discourses in Social Work

Jitka Navrátilová^1

Pavel Navrátil^2

Contacts to authors

1,2 Masaryk University,

Faculty of Social Studies,

Joštova 10, 602 00 Brno

jitkanav@fss.muni.cz

navratil@fss.muni.cz

Kontakty na autory

1,2 Masarykova univerzita,

Fakulta sociálních studií,

Joštova 10, 602 00 Brno

jitkanav@fss.muni.cz

navratil@fss.muni.cz

Abstract: An expert discussion about the nature of identity in

social work has been led in the Czech Republic for more than

a quarter century. This debate did not bring a definite shift in the

understanding of what social work is, nor did it bring a shared

stance on what its domain should be (Chytil, 2007; Navrátil

& Navrátilová, 2008; Matulayová & Musil, 2013; Punová

& Navrátilová, 2014). However, if there is any consensus on the

identity of social work, it refers to the fact that social work is a

socially constructed field (Navrátil, 1998, 2013a) and therefore also

multiparadigmatic or discursively open. If it is difficult or

impossible to capture sectoral identity with a clear and final

definition, sectoral identity can be seen in a pluralistic way through

discourses. This paper is built on the premise that one of the most

important factors influencing a sectoral understanding of sectoral

identity is university education, which is one of the key social

institutions that influence or even shape social discursive space

(Etzkowitz & Dzisah, 2012). In the paper we present the most

influential contemporary discourses, which are applied in the

education of social workers, and answer the question: What

assumptions about the performance of social work and more

generally the concept of sectoral identity are implied by the

selected discourses of education in social work? Particular among

these discourses is a socio-pedagogical perspective we compare

these other discourses with and show what values are crucial for

each of the different discourses and how they can enrich social

work as a discipline. We proceed from the extensive overview of

Czech, Slovak and English-language scientific literature, published

in regard to the problem o educating social workers in the past

twenty years.

Keywords: education, identity, social work, evidence-based

discourse, reflexive discourse, competence discourse, socio-

educational discourse

Vzdělávací diskurzy v sociální práci

Abstrakt: V České republice se již více než čtvrt století vede

odborná diskuse o podstatě identity sociální práce. Tato debata

však nepřinesla jednoznačný posun v poznání, čím sociální práce je,

a ani nepřinesla sdílený postoj o tom, co by mělo být její doménou

(Chytil, 2007; Navrátil & Navrátilová, 2008; Matulayová & Musil,

2013; Punová & Navrátilová, 2014). Pokud však v něčem shoda

ohledně identity sociální práce panuje, týká se toho, že sociální

práce je obor sociálně konstruovaný (Navrátil, 1998, 2013a) a tedy

rovněž multiparadigmatický, či diskurzivně otevřený. Je-li tedy

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 39

Copyright © 2016 by authors

and publisherTBU in Zlín.

This work is licensed under the

Creative Commons Attribution

International License (CC BY).

obtížné až nemožné postihnout oborovou identitu jednoznačnou

a konečnou definicí, lze na oborovou identitu nahlížet pluralitně

prostřednictvím diskurzů. Tato stať pak staví na předpokladu,

že jedním z nejzásadnějších faktorů ovlivňujícím chápání oborové

identity je univerzitní vzdělávání, které je jednou z klíčových

společenských institucí, které diskurzivní prostor sociální ovlivňují,

či dokonce utvářejí (Etzkowitz & Dzisah, 2012). Ve stati

představujeme nejvlivnější soudobé diskurzy, které se uplatňují ve

vzdělávání sociálních pracovníků, a odpovídáme na otázku: Jaké

předpoklady o výkonu sociální práce a obecněji o pojetí oborové

identity implikují vybrané diskurzy vzdělávání v sociální práci?

Specifické místo mezi těmito diskurzy zaujímá sociálně-

pedagogická perspektiva, s níž tyto ostatní diskurzy komparujeme

a ukazujeme, jaké hodnoty jsou pro každý z jednotlivých diskurzů

stěžejní a čím mohou obohatit sociální práci jako obor. Vycházíme

přitom z extenzivního přehledu české, slovenské a anglicky psané

odborné literatury, která k problému vzdělávání sociálních

pracovníků byla publikována v uplynulých dvaceti letech.

Klíčová slova: vzdělávání, identita, sociální práce, evidence-based

diskurz, reflexivní diskurz, kompetenční diskurz, sociálně-

pedagogický diskurz

1 Introduction

Social work is a field in which it is impossible to define the aim, as well as the content or performance

of social workers in an exhaustive and for all contexts valid manner (McDonald, 2006). The diversity

of the perception of social work affects the diversity of views on the education of social workers, and

vice versa, education has a significant impact on the concept of social work. With regard to the

objective of this study, it can be said that a number of approaches to learning has emerged

throughout the history of social work (Lishman, 2011). One of the crucial points, in which they differ

from one another, is the difference in what values social workers deem crucial when preparing for

their future occupations. Some directions emphasize the need to provide students with sufficient

theoretical knowledge, while other ones prefer the training of practical skills, and others emphasize

the topic of self-development, critical thinking and the ability of active participation. We believe that

accentuating a particular educational concept points the way not only for how the social worker will

be prepared for their future profession, but also what will constitute the actual performance of social

work. We proceed from the assumption that the method social workers' training affects the form of

social work. Although in general terms each approach seeks to “help clients manage interaction with

their social environment,” they are based on different assumptions and emphasize different

elements of education.

Although we can record a series of partial approaches through which social workers can be educated,

for the purposes of this study we present the four main discourses that sufficiently clearly illustrate

the scale of differences in the concept of preparing social workers for their future careers, both at

home and abroad. They are (1) the socio-pedagogical discourse, (2) evidence-based discourse, (3)

competency-based discourse, and (4) reflexive discourse. Each of them represents an important

direction in social work, each emphasizing different aspects of the training of social workers. The task

of this paper is to compare the differentiation of these discourses, present their different premise

and their consequences for the education and experience of social workers. The presentation of the

philosophical foundations which it is based on, makes it easier to understand the accents of different

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 40

approaches in a broader context. We analyze the findings on the individual discursive approaches in

order to understand their basic starting points and the direction of their original ideas. It is not so

much about identifying the approach that should be perhaps the most correct, but rather about

recognizing how different approaches in the education of social workers are manifested and what

they are directed towards.

In the following section we will introduce the different discourses regarding the training of social

workers. The structure of the analysis of discourse in education proceeds in the following structure.

First we always attend to general assumptions of the relevant discourse, then we proceed to

evaluate its approach to education and then analyze the identity that will be anchored in the given

discursive approach.

2 Social work and social pedagogy together, but each of them different

In our study, we had at least two basic options on how to approach the interaction of social work and

social pedagogy. First, it is possible to engage in social work and social pedagogy as two self-

establishing departments, which of course can govern common interests, theory and practice. The

second option is to deal with social pedagogy as one of the discourses that found its place also in the

context of social work. Given that the aim of this paper is to compare selected key discourses in

social work, we choose the second perspective as dominant. The belief that this approach can be

productive is also supported by the fact that it is possible to encounter the application of socio-

pedagogical perspectives in practical social work. For example, in Germany the socio-pedagogical

aspect was significantly identified with social work, but it is also possible to encounter this view of

social work in some Czech educators. Nevertheless, we consider it necessary to introduce at least

briefly, how the relationship between these two disciplines crystallized.

If we look at the emergence of modern forms of both fields, then we can find some parallels in the

causes of their institutionalization. Revolutionary social changes at the break of the 19th and 20th

centuries associated with industrialization, urbanization and modernization, whose consequences

influenced the life of all society, opened the way to the emergence of social work. Some authors

(Ševčíková & Navrátil, 2010; Navrátilová, 2015) put the emergence of the field in the context of social

risks that provoked these social changes, and thanks to which a large number of individuals and

entire families plunged into fatal poverty. Omnipresent poverty and the fight against it found a

response in the form of various types of assistance, which have tried to eliminate the consequences

of dramatic social change. Hugman (2009) points out that it is possible to trace two basic approaches

to social work. The first one, which was represented by the “settlement movement” supports a

structural view of social work, under which the activity of social workers should be focused on

providing tools and resources to certain groups of people to change social structures and conditions

that puts them at a disadvantage (Barker, 1995). Social workers are thus understood as active players

who should make their clients capable of changing social conditions. This approach represents the

beginnings of macro-level social work practice and focuses on the structural understanding of social

issues. In this context, social workers seek to mobilize clients to make structural changes.

In the second perspective, like the first, it was about helping individuals adapt to the conditions of

the social environment. Musil (2004) points out that the work of The Charity Organization staff, who

were the bearers and pioneers of this trend, was however directed to assisting individuals in

adapting to the conditions of the social environment through the effect on individuals and families.

Hugman (2009, p. 1139) associates the creation of this organization with the increase of professional

sensitivity at the end of the 19th century to charitable assistance for those individuals and families

who experienced the problems of poverty, family breakdown, poor housing, etc. Through direct work

with clients focusing on individual assistance to clients in their difficult situation, they created their

own work method. It was based on the use of the relationship between those who need help, and

their individual case workers. This relationship became a foundation to help the needy. Thanks to it,

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 41

clients tried to better cope with their problems, as well as to better achieve the resources available

through charitable funds and use them. One of the basic methods of social work – namely the case of

social work, was formed as inspiration for the activities of these charity workers. This concept of

work, which focuses on the individual functioning and issues of social order, represents the beginning

of micro-level approaches in social work.

According to Human (2009), what linked these two streams was the attempt to respond to the

increase in social problems arising from the processes of industrialization, urbanization and

modernization, which created a massive social movement of the industrial revolution across

northern Europe and North America (see Keller, 2007; Chytil, 2007). On the contrary, what divided

these two approaches was the understanding of the causes of client problems and the solutions that

should be applied (Hugman, 2009).

The diversity of approaches and traditions can also be seen in social pedagogy. Many authors point

to the great variability, but also the diversification of social pedagogy in Europe (e.g. Lyons

& Huegler, 2012; Kornbeck & Jensen et al., 2009; Ezechiel, 2015; Hämäläinen, 2015). As with social

work, the roots of social pedagogy are clasped with large social changes, which the processes of

industrialization and urbanization were characteristic for. Lyons and Huegler (2012) point out that

the origins of social pedagogy are primarily associated with the two paradigms. One of them saw

social pedagogy as a tool for social transformation through education communities, which was aimed

at all ages. The second, which appeared in 1920 in connection with the provision of professional and

academic field identity, established a closer understanding of social pedagogy as the education of

children and youth living outside the school and family context. Both of these views then had a

profound influence on the development of the profession itself and the field's development in

individual countries. Critics of these streams have pointed to idealism and susceptibility to

exploitative practices on one side, and little sensitivity to socio-political contexts on the other

(Böhnisch, 1999).

The beginnings of the establishment of these industries shows that, although each of them sought to

address the consequences of major social events in the daily life of individuals and communities,

their accents were different. In general we can say that social pedagogical perspective saw the

solution of social problems through the training of selected groups of individuals and communities as

well as their growth and socialization, while the perspective of social work sought to empower and

support individuals and communities in order to improve their social functioning.

It is evident that both fields are characterized by the intrinsic variability and ambiguity of objectives

and identities. This diversity and ambiguity of what is the domain of social work and social education

creates a space in which these disciplines can get closer together or even overlap. Another reason for

these overlaps may be the fact that both disciplines work with the same target groups, use the same

theoretical and conceptual resources and, ultimately, professionals from both sides strive for the

same thing: they want to improve the functioning of individuals, groups and communities though

they approach it from different perspectives. According to Böhnisch (1999), a significant

approximation of social pedagogy and social work occurred in the 60s and 70s through an emphasis

on emancipation and lifelong socialization. A shift toward education and sensitivity to socio-political

aspects became typical for both professions. Important concepts that both professions worked with

became those that focused on human development, personality and coping with everyday life

situations in interaction with structural, social and individual factors.

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 42

3 Social work in the socially pedagogical discourse

3.1 Basis

Hämäläinen (2015) explains that social pedagogy is associated with diverse ontological,

epistemological and axiological bases. In our study, we cannot deal with social education in all its

forms, but we choose what we believe very strongly influenced one of the discourses of social work.

It is the area of critical theory, which moreover, according to Hämäläinen, applies in the present in

social pedagogy (2015). According to Giroux (1997) and Marsh (2011) in this concept of social

pedagogy it is significant that social pedagogues are understood as part of the wider world, social

community, and contribute with their active influence to a critical change and empowering of the

disadvantaged. The concept of social pedagogy, critical consciousness is a fundamental defining

feature of social pedagogy.

One of the classic authors who followed the requirement of cultivating critical consciousness and its

application when making changes, is Paolo Freire (1972). His key premise included the challenging of

technical-rational education as a neutral model, arguing that many of its forms do not reject sexism,

racism, exploitation and actually conserve unjust social conditions. Therefore he developed programs

that should stimulate the growth of (critical) consciousness, and which may be the basis for a

creative and liberating action. Freire's work aimed the focus of teachers on topics such as power,

oppression, dialogue, empowerment and awakening consciousness. These ideas have become part of

not only teaching practice, but influenced the development of social work and its theory. Radical, and

later anti-discrimination and anti-oppressive directions, adopted the thesis on the need to promote

critical awareness as their central starting point.

These procedures started to be applied in social work in the 80s and 90s, and the increase of these

social work models was related to the need of some Western countries to face the explosive social

problems associated with “guest workers”, refugees, migrants from the east of Germany, the UK and

other developed Western countries. Specific discourse of social work whose accents were clearly

linked with socially critical thinking in pedagogy began to be cultivated under the banner of “anti-

oppressive” approaches (Navrátil, 2013b).

3.2 Approach to education

This type of discourse understands teachers – social workers as intellectuals who are able to

understand the teaching space as a place where students can explore, discuss, analyze the language

of knowledge and skills. All this should lead to the growth of critical thinking skills. The socio-

pedagogical perspective is based on the belief that the personal growth and development of critical

thinking are essential to improving the functioning of individuals and entire groups.

One of the models of critical thinking development and the development of consciousness is

represented by a model of didactic planes when preparing social workers for their future profession

(Sherpner, 1999). It is a model of application of social and pedagogical perspectives in the training of

social workers, which should lead to the development of critical thinking and awareness especially

among students, but quite naturally it also leads to the growth and progress of teachers. The

application of this perspective should lead not only to a student's progress, which is not only

characterized by acquiring new knowledge and skills, but also a deeper awareness of themselves,

their personal background and their impact on the performance of social work. Sherpner (1999),

building on the work of Garland, Jones and Kolodney (1976, pp. 17–71) defines and characterizes

these five didactic levels:

(1) Information intermediation

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 43

This plane is not only about obtaining new information on social work, but especially the

development of new knowledge. So it is mainly about confronting new information with what

the student already knows, what they have experienced on the level of opinions and attitudes.

This didactic level significantly shapes the initial opinions and attitudes towards the

performance of social work. It expands new knowledge and receives information that may

become a basis for changing opinions and attitudes towards the practice. In this context,

Scherpner (1999) points out one pitfall of this plane. If the teacher merely transmits

information without understanding the context, this way of teaching will have little effect on

student learning and will have a rather negative influence.

(2) Reflection of professional role, its development and acquisition of new methods

In this plane, the teacher encourages the student to ask critical questions. Through them they

obtain the image of the subject and its context with which they work with in practice. Their

questions are focused on finding ways how to proceed, how they can deal with the particular

situation in the context of their experience. The teacher who leads the student within their

practical experience shows them instructions on how to approach certain situations. However,

they should only be some kind of guidance. The student should be encouraged to have

courage in finding their own way when recognizing discrimination and oppression. At this level

the student acquire specific professional methods and techniques that are intended to

improve their training and professional skills. Students deepen their knowledge through direct

experience.

(3) Self-education, self-reflection and self-knowledge

The personality of the social worker is one of the tools of social work. Students are therefore

encouraged to be more deeply engaged with their inner integrity, their attitudes to the subject

of their work, as well as professional values. They learn to distinguish their own stereotypes,

prejudices and other characteristics that reduce their ability to adequately work with clients.

The issues of motivation for social work come to the fore here. Motives can be different and

their timely non-differentiation may lead to subsequent errors and faulty performance in the

negotiations with the client. The student is slowly confronted with themselves, which they may

find very difficult and sometimes unpleasant. The teacher may assist with their own emotions

and experiences. By giving the student the opportunity to look into their inner feelings and

experiences, the learning process may deepen for the student (Seden, 2003).

(4) Biography and life plan

Experience from critical practice, which the student has built, naturally bring the question of

what this experience means for their next direction, especially for their professional life. They

ask themselves questions aimed at finding answers to where they will go in their professional

lives. They already have a sufficient idea of what types of difficulties and risks must be tackled

in their work, and realize how this work enriches them. They have a greater awareness of their

personality, their strengths and weaknesses affecting their practical execution of social work.

All this gives the student the space in which they may decide. In this context, they may be able

to think about their own as well as professional identity better.

(5) Transcendence and spirituality

This didactic plane refers to the fact that social work as a profession can have a spiritual and

transcendent dimension both for social workers and clients. These are particularly affected in

relation to human suffering. Face to face with these painful experiences, social workers are

confronted with finding a deeper meaning to their life and their work. Teachers should

therefore be sensitive to this area and prepare their students for it. Cultural and spiritual

sensitivity is becoming an essential prerequisite for the quality practice of social work.

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 44

Didactic planes can serve as the structure of the process in which social work students acquire skills

related to critical thinking and develop their critical consciousness. The issue here is not just about

the ability to understand oneself, but also about understanding one's anchor in the broader social

contexts that may influence our thinking.

3.3 The concept of identity

The basic concept of this discourse is the concept of “oppression”. This term refers to the structural

disadvantages for certain groups who are denied certain rights and options normally available to the

majority of the society or its elite. The aim of this concept of social work is to face these handicaps,

reduce individual and institutional discrimination based on race, gender, disability, social class and

sexual orientation (Thomas & Pierson, 1995, p. 16). This concept of social work generally deals with

various forms of oppression of women, members of different races, classes and ethnic groups,

religious groups and other social and cultural groups. It approaches them as a complex of

relationships that must be viewed from a single, discrimination revealing and declining viewing angle.

One of the authors trying to develop an anti-discrimination approach as a comprehensive model of

social work is Neil Thompson (1992). According to him, it is downright dangerous if a social worker is

unaware of discrimination or oppression, which the client is exposed to. Social workers here aim to

highlight in particular the oppression that arises between categories of people, e.g. oppression of

men against women (gender), one culture against another (ethnocentrism), between generations

(ageism), healthy people towards the disabled and so on. Social worker follows the principle that

intervention of social work can either strengthen or eliminate oppression. The basic values which

departmental identity stands on in this approach, is justice, equality and participation.

While the concept of “enabling” was emphasized in other concepts of social work, the purpose of

antidiscrimination approaches is the “empowerment” of people. While the concept of enabling is

individualistic and implies social work which helps people to acquire the skills that will help them

cope with the conditions in which they live, the concept of empowerment means helping people to

acquire more power (control, government) over their lives and living conditions.

The hallmark of good practice in traditional social work is a sensibility to the feelings of the client. In

the case of the anti-discrimination approach, a similar emphasis is put on sensitivity towards the

experience of discrimination, oppression. The social worker must be able to take into account such

factors as: race, ethnicity, gender, age, disability, sexual orientation, etc., and the role of these

aspects in the client's situation. Failure to do so may damage the client more than help them.

Another feature of classical social work is the recognition of each person's uniqueness.

Representatives of the anti-discrimination approach do not want to question this value, but seeks to

deepen it even more by directing attention to the fact that uniqueness is not worth talking abstractly

about, and that every person is set in a quite specific social context.

4 Social work in evidence-based discourse

4.1 Basis

The approach largely came to the attention of social workers in the last decade of the 20th century.

What is typical and what distinguishes it from other approaches is the emphasis on the evidence-

based method. Although in other approaches to education in social work we can follow their link with

research and academic tradition, this approach is primarily based on the fact that the basis for the

decision-making of social workers must be scientifically (understand empirically) verified by evidence

(Sackett et al., 1996; Griffith, 1999; Sheldon, 2001; Webb, 2001). Social workers are expected to be

able to provide procedures and guidance that would be measurable and offer the certainty of

objectivist knowledge. In social work practice, this means that proven (verified by evaluation

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 45

research) or empirically-based interventions are utilized. Evidence is primarily used in the phase

when the social worker decides on a certain intervention in the role of an expert (solving the client's

problem). To reduce the risk of bad decisions made on the basis of unsubstantiated assumptions,

stereotypes or even prejudices, the decision must be supported by research findings. A major role is

therefore played by scientific support, which may be relevant information in the form of different

statistics, research summaries, research reports and scientific papers, etc. A primary emphasis is

placed on scientific evidence, because thanks to them the decision-making process when working

with a client becomes more objective, based on verified evidence-based research.

In the course of its development, evidence-based social work got under certain influences essential

to its current form. From the extreme view, which completely eliminated the influence of the

practical experience of social workers when dealing with the cases of clients, to an approach when

social workers have a certain space in the interpretation of scientific recommendation. Theses by

Rubin and Babbi (2010), who developed an integrative model of scientific practice, which in the work

of social workers takes into account (1) practical experience, (2) the best research evidence and,

finally, (3) the client's characteristics, are an example of the moderate understating of evidence-

based discourse in social work. The authors talk about the fact that none of these elements can stand

off to the side, as they can mutually support one another.

4.2 Approach to education

The close relationship between social work with scientific methods, which have become the basis for

decision-making and the intervention of social workers, naturally has a great influence on what is

expected within the education and professional training of social workers. The skills that they are to

gain in the course of social training derive mainly from precise scientific methodology based on

gradual steps that should lead the social worker to their mastery and success in working with clients.

According to Rubin and Babbi (2010), the methodology of “evidence-based practice” consists of six

basic steps: (1) the formulation of basic questions, (2) a search for evidence, (3) the critical evaluation

of the results of relevant work, (4) the selection of appropriate interventions, (5) the application of

intervention, (6) evaluation and feedback. The aim of vocational education is to teach students to

seek proper evidence, scientifically founded conclusion. It is therefore obvious that this type of

training of social workers emphasizes the development of methodical thinking, capability in the use

of research sources and their critical evaluation. According to Jarolímková (2004), ability to find the

best proof required the information literacy of users. Only via its development, we can be successful

in practice based on evidence. Therefore both students and social workers should be supported in

information literacy. This support should be provided, e.g. by training, counseling centers or through

specialized seminars and conferences. Within them they learn the hierarchical categorization of

evidence or information sources, according to the value attributed to the “evidence-based”

methodology. Study goals are focused on the acquisition of skills for the use of scientific resources

and evidence that serves as support for the decision to intervene.

4.3 The concept of identity

The identity of social workers in this discourse is very different from the other three. The thing in

which this approach is fundamentally different from others is mainly the approach to assessing the

client's life situation and deciding on intervention. In the first place it is expected from a social

worker here that they can accurately operationalize the client's problem and then find the

appropriate scientific evidence to support an effective intervention option when working with a

client. According to Novell (1990), the point is that the social worker is able to obtain resources and

support scientific data carriers for their decision-making on the intervention. In this context, the

emphasis is put on information fitness of social workers. If they have this skill, they can help their

clients, and moreover, their work will be efficient.

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 46

Rose (1985) points out that in the context of evidence-based practice, a social worker becomes an

ingenious processor able to choose the best solution for the given situation, and thus make the best

decision. Under this approach, the social worker is thought of as someone who can apply basic logical

principles to clients' problems, since it is based on the fact that the clients' behavior will probably

develop in a certain direction. Although there are different directions and perspectives in social work

based on evidence, it is clear that the center of gravity is in finding scientific evidence. The practical

experience of social workers, although it has application in this approach, does not play such a role.

The position of the theoretical framework is more influential is this approach than the experience

generated by practice. Less emphasis on the reflection on their own role and own identity in the

process of working with the client is also an unintended consequence of this.

5 Social work in training discourse

5.1 Basis

The competence-based discourse occupies a very significant place in the training of social workers,

especially in recent years. The idea that social workers should mainly learn to respond to clients' life

situation with appropriate behavioral strategies during studies has become very attractive for many.

In the Czech Republic, competence-based discourse penetrated most curricula in social work in the

last twenty years. The survey carried out among social work educators has shown that education

focused on competencies was a prevailing approach in the Czech Republic, through which students

are being prepared for their future profession as social workers (Navrátilová, 2010). This shift to the

training discourse is, however, also visible in other European countries, as reported by, for example,

Chytil (2007), Kearney (2000), Lorenz (2007); Webb (2001), and others.

Many authors point out that competency models are based on behavioral movement, which began

to emerge in the 20s and penetrated the educational systems in the 50s (Ainsworth, 1977;

Kuhlmann, 2009; Parker, 2006), and massively affected the education of social workers in the past

five decades in particular. A competence-based method of learning first appeared in public education

of youth and soon expanded to educational programs for teachers at larger universities and became

dominant in the educational programs and standards of various areas (Kuhlmann, 2009). It is worth

mentioning that the American psychologist and theorist of learning, David McClelland (1973), whose

article from 1973 Testing for Competence rather than Intelligence, which unleashed a storm of

controversy contributed very strongly to this, and de facto launched a “competence movement” in

the US (Adams, 1997). The “founding father” of the competency approach questioned its previously

used model for evaluating success through intelligence tests. He pointed out that the achieved

competencies should become the tool for this assessment.

Behavioral foundations highlighting interest in influencing human behavior brought elements of

objectivity, quantification and certainty into education. As stated by Navrátil (2001) and Matoušek

(2003), it was assumed that the results of empirical research would bring new knowledge about

general laws of behavior, while every human behavior under this approach is seen as the result of

what one learned or did not learn. According to Navrátil (2001), classic behaviorists do not focus on

specific (empirically measurable) behavior of the individual in the context of their environment.

Classical behaviorists do not follow the inner motives and causes of human behavior. On the

contrary, they believe that all behavior, whether it shows signs of normality or abnormality, is

learned in interaction with the environment. For this reason, behaviorists focus their attention to the

conditions and circumstances that affect the learning process. Findings from observations are used to

make the procedures used to re-teach undesirable behavior (Kuhlmann, 2009).

Behaviorism ideas that found their use in many social sciences (sociology, anthropology, political

science, social work, psychology) have gone through numerous changes since their early beginnings.

The fact that the initial disinterest of behaviorists about inner feelings and motives was replaced by a

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 47

focus on cognitive processes associated with human experience and behavior (experiences,

expectations, perceptions) may be considered among the most significant. The emergence of

behavioral theories that emphasize the emotional side of human behavior next to the rational side,

are an example. Such an instance can be Dryden's rational-emotional-behavioral therapy (Dryden,

2008).

Fay (2002, p. 152) states that the most developed and most influential theories of competence in

social sciences are those that are a mainstay for rational choice. In social work we can understand

this statement in response to a requirement that social workers were able to solve practical

problems. Reid and Epstein (1977) who developed the task-based approach in social work responded

to this request in the early 70s. The structure and methodology of this approach were to bring about

fundamental changes in the activity of social workers by increasing the efficiency of solving practical

problems encountered by the clients of social workers. This approach, like so many others, which

sought this efficiency, are characterized primarily by: being based on research findings, structured,

provide clear and specific guidelines, allow the adoption of a wide range of competencies, focus on

specific objectives, targeted on the fulfillment of tasks; they are time-bound and so they mobilize

efforts (Tolson, Reid, & Garvin, 2013).

Rationality of dealing thus became synonymous with efficiency in solving client problems. The

authors following behaviourist ideas consider the named characteristics to be positives and benefits,

especially in the education and practical experience of social workers.

5.2 Approach to education

The expansion of the competence-based model affects the entire education of social workers and

specifically the concept of professional experience which has a significant place in the professional

training of social workers. Clark (cit. according to Arkava & Brennen, 1996) pointed out that although

the competency approach is conceived in different ways in individual study programs, it is likely that

in these programs we encounter the following characteristics:

- Emphasis on outcomes rather than on the learning process. Within competency models it is

usually required that the student demonstrate achievement of a specific and predefined

competencies. Learning methods by which this competence is achieved are not so important.

The achievement of results in itself is therefore essential, the result.

- Teaching and learning are defined in terms of performance. Students must be able to

demonstrate that they are successful in demonstrating the performance desired in advance.

- Performances are understood in a behavioral approach. Performance requirements are often

given very clearly and lists of commands and requirements associated with the achievement of

specific competence are often compiled.

- Criteria for measuring performance are given. They determine when a student is successful in

their performance and when they have not achieved the desired result. These criteria are

usually presented by precise criteria that indicate different levels of competence.

Shardlow and Doel (1996) note that in the context of these models it paradoxically occurs that the

end of the educational process is actually the beginning. For this reason, the attributes of a

competent social worker in terms of desired behavior that fulfills the role of a social worker are very

precisely described. The “behavior” is most often specified through a system of skills, which a social

worker should be trained in. Each skill is operationalized at the level where it is clear what can be

considered evidence of achieving the competency. This kind of education is also reflected in the

relationship between teacher and pupil, as well as a social worker and client. Gabura with Pružinská

(1995) talk about the educational function of a relationship. A teacher is one who teaches, who is the

bearer of rules and clear instructions on how to proceed in certain situations. The student is

expected to critically question these instructions.

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 48

5.3 The concept of identity

Although we can say that the competence-based approach is highly popular, it simultaneously causes

extensive criticism by a number of authors, both foreign and domestic. For example, Lena Dominelli

(1996) examines the influence of a competence-based model in social work and its impact on the

practical experience of social workers. According to Dominelli, the competence-based model

simplifies different elements of complex and dynamic social interactions and reduces the social

nature of its individual components. Likewise, Bogo and Vayda (1987) point out that the

competence-based approach is focused on the specification of individual professional skills in

measurable behavior. There is only little room for reflection on the student experience. Dominelli

(1996) states that an emphasis on competence-based approach in education and social work leads to

technicistic and decontextualized learning, leading to the atomization of teachings, the problems of

the client and social work in general. He points out that this method of competency perception does

not emphasize the achievement of the best result, but even a satisfactory standard can be

understood as good enough in this sense. This can of course lead to a reduction in the quality of

education. Education is seen primarily in terms of rationality and therefore effectiveness. People

should acquire, or rather buy such a type of education, which will be based on market needs rather

than the needs based on the reality of daily life.

Dominelli (1996) points out that the competence-based approach in social work introduces

fundamental changes in social work deeper than they seem at first glance. Pressure on the

implementation of the competence-based approaches is not based on user needs or aspirations of

social workers, but from the ephemeral and unpredictable market, whose main driving force is to

gain profit. When transferring commercial thinking into education in social work, this caused a

fundamental shift in the distribution of power from professionals in social work (e.g., academics and

practitioners) to those who make decisions about financial resources. Competence-based discourse

in education is part of the global marketization of the welfare state and its reduction (McDonald,

2006).

Chytil (2007), Lorenz (2007) and Laan (1998) point out in connection with the privatization of

education of social workers that the commodification of education means a gradual loss of the

ethical identity of social work. They warn that the activity of social workers has also become a

commodity that has the same value as the other offered services. Help service itself has become the

subject of purchase, as it happens with common consumer goods. Hugman (1998) points out that

social workers have become producers of “welfare” and service users have become consumers. The

fact whether this service will be offered or not does not need to be dependent on whether the need

is felt by those who need help, but whether it can withstand the competing offer of other services.

This situation is, however, in many cases, inconvenient and dangerous, because the driving force of

the market is profit rather than helping those in need (Nussbaum, 2011)

6 Social work in reflexive discourse

6.1 Basis

In the last two decades, reflexive approach has raised a lot of expectations in many areas of

professional human activity and some authors even talk about the development of massive interest

in the use of reflection in diverse areas. Interest in reflective processes was opened by authors who

have begun to question the usefulness of linear thinking in applied technical professions, which

besides academic knowledge also need to take into consideration not only the experience of

professionals but also clients (Argyris & Schön, 1974; Schön, 1983). In social work, this motif occurs

primarily in authors from the Anglophone linguistic circle (but not exclusively). Reflexive approaches

have quickly become the subject of interest to a number of scientific and educational books in social

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 49

work, because the idea that the experiences of workers and suggestions from clients must be used

for adequate decision-making in social work seemed very natural in this context (D'Cruz, Gillingham,

& Melendez, 2007; Ferguson, 2003; Chow, Lam, Leung, Wong, & Chan, 2011; Morley, 2015; Nixon &

Murr, 2006).

It seems that in social work there is growing interest in the concepts of reflection, reflexing, etc. in

the context of growing awareness of uncertainty and ambiguity of the postmodern man thrown into

the world of many opportunities and risks (Bauman, 1995; Giddens, 2003). Social workers are forced

to respond to the status of “blurred” professional coordinates that formerly flanked the normative

practice of social workers (Musil, 2004; Musil & Šrajer, 2008; Navrátil, 2005). Social workers are

turning to reflecting their personality, experience and social conventions as a tool, which is a means

of feedback and which help shape a certain perspective of thinking and practical action in the

“blurred” (Musil & Šrajer, 2008) contours of profession and society.

Jane Fook (2002) also explicitly compares reflectivity and reflexivity as well as highlights the different

discourses from which these concepts have emerged. While according to Fook, reflectivity is

associated more with disciplines such as management and engineering, reflexivity was formulated in

the discourse of social sciences as a key research skill and associated with qualitative and especially

ethnographic research. According to Fook (1999), reflectivity is based on the positivist tradition, and

its purpose is to generate an objective theory, which should be deductively applied in practice.

Reflectivity in social work was rather connected with the social worker's effort to distance

themselves from their experiences and feelings and try to attain an objective approach to practical

work. Reflecting should also serve to uncover a formal contradiction between formal theory and the

practical experience of the social worker. The process of reflection is used here to deny the practical

wisdom of social workers, which arises inductively from daily practice. Reflexivity is conversely

associated with late-modern critique of objectivism and it values the practice of social workers more

(as well as the cognitive process). Fook (2002) also states that reflectivity is more related to the

process of reflection on practice, while reflexivity characterizes the social worker's ability to perceive

and evaluate their impact on research or practical activities. Fook also explains that reflectivity

applies particularly to efforts in understanding how things work, while reflexivity lies in efforts to

bring as many different perspectives and views when thinking about the client's life situation. A

comparison of selected characteristics of reflective and reflexive approach is presented in the

following table 1.

Table 1

Comparison of reflective and reflexive thinking

Discursive origin

Reflective thinking

Management and engineering

Reflexive thinking

Social sciences

The nature of social reality

Objective

Constructed

Knowledge objective

Creation of objective theory

In-depth understanding of the

individual

Purpose of reflecting/reflexion Technically understand and

improve practice

Cultivation of personality,

expanding awareness of their

own impact on the ongoing

processes

Approach to practical

experience

Development and application of

a single “correct” model of how

things happen and how they

should be influenced

Finding different perspectives,

interpretations and ways of

solving

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 50

Timing

Following the completion of

work with the client or its

compact part

Source: Adjusted according to Schön (1983) and Fook (2002).

During work with the client

It is interesting that although Fook (2002) distinguishes the meaning of reflective and reflexive, she

proposes using the concepts complementary with the fact that reflexive attitude position supports

reflection of practice. In her idea, reflexive attitude is, simply put, rather a predisposition toward

reflexivity, while reflection is rather a process of reviewing practice. With this step, Fook (2002)

combines both concepts and makes them a part of one unit in practical terms. I will discuss the

options of connecting reflectivity and reflexivity later in the third section of this chapter. Since the

concept of reflexivity seems more apt to social work based on the performed comparison, I will deal

with it further in greater detail and in the text below I will introduce different concepts of reflexivity

and focus on identifying subtypes of reflexivity to describe their main characteristics.

6.2 The concept of education

Extensive work of John Dewey (1930, 1933, 1947) affected a number of later writers who have dealt

with the reflexive approach. Besides Donald Schön, who opened the gates of reflective thinking not

only for social work, we can mention Jack Mezirow (1985, 1991) and Stephen Brookfield (1987,

1995). They engaged in the learning process, in which individuals are drawn into a reflexive

evaluation of their experiences and interpretations. These authors focus primarily on the

transformation of knowledge and learning, in which they suggest to critically confronting the possible

interpretation of particular experience. Reflexive education is clearly focused on developing the

ability of future social workers to realize different perspectives, planes and interpretations of their

experiences and the experiences of clients. Within reflexive learning there are many models that can

be applied in the learning process. For example, Thompson and Thompson (2008) created a three-

dimensional model of a reflexive approach that takes into account the development of reflective

thinking and summarizes knowledge about this approach. These three dimensions of reflective

approach include reflection: (a) cognitive (b) affective and (c) value.

In cognitive reflexion it comes to cultivating simple thinking and even creative thinking, which is the

source of the skills of professionals, able to consider problems in their complexity and yet creatively

use all possible resources to be able to approach clients in a unique way. In the context of thinking

reflexion, Thompson and Thompson (2008) talk about several types of thinking that social workers

should develop so that their work with clients can be professional. Social workers should thus have

an open mind, receptive to the needs of clients and the context in which they live, and should be

able to think analytically. Thanks to the reflection of thinking, social workers should be able to use

their creative thinking in favor of the client. Unlike traditional approaches that did not recognize the

importance of emotions for the helping process, the reflective approach emphasizes their

significance in practice and reflecting on emotions is one of the prerequisites of this approach

(Biestek, 1957; Webb, 2001).

Developing a reflexive approach in practice also brought a new perspective, which is based on the

fact that just as thinking is important, the feelings also have an irreplaceable role in the process of

reflexion. Thompson and Thompson (2008) note that we would make a big mistake if we did not

recognize what a crucial role feelings and emotions play in the assisting process. Their significance is

primarily associated with the ability to share the problems of our clients, as well as the ability to

adequately respond to clients' problems. The development of the reflective approach in practice also

brings the realization that emotions play a key role in working with clients, and they are even a moral

compass in learning and practice. Thompson and Thompson (2008) follow the fact that within

reflective practice it is absolutely necessary for emotions to be integrated as one of the basic

elements of reflection.

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 51

Social work was associated with certain values, which are an indicator of social workers. They

represented something considered good and desirable in a profession. Emphasizing certain values

influenced the form and shape of social work. Through them anything that is deemed appropriate,

useful and appropriate to follow (Clark, 2000) was emphasized. It is therefore very important to

recognize on what value foundations our work as helpers stands on. Moss (2007) remarks, that

“without realizing values, our work can become dangerous. Values not only create our thoughts and

feelings, but also our response.” In this context, the integration of values into our practice supports

congruent behaviors, through which there is a consensus on how a client is thought of, what feelings

we have towards them, and how we treat them (Dryden, 2008). The absence of this consensus is

risky not only for the client but also for the social worker.

The above-described dimensions and elements provide us with an idea of the structure of the

reflexive approach in the training of social workers. Just mere knowledge of the structure and the

pursuit of its integration into the training of social workers will likely not be enough. The key is the

willingness to bring openness to the educational process and ability to integrate the diversity of

human experience as a source of creativity and innovative practices.

6.3 The concept of identity

We believe that the reflexive discourse of social work whose key principle lies in reflective thinking

represents a particularly useful way of checking the prerequisites and circumstances a social worker

operates with in their work with clients. Social work is conceived as an activity that should carefully

consider each step. Reflexivity in this direction is perceived as a better and more meaningful way of

regulating the practice than the emerging trend to make the implementation of social work

bureaucratic in all its aspects. Reflection and reflective practice are also a better and more

convenient practice management model for the profession of social work than the proceduralization

of its procedures, or any other restriction on the professional exercise of social workers. Reflexivity is

also philosophically and ethically closer to participatory approaches that understand the client as an

equal partner of the social worker. The nature of reflexivity is an effort to control the interpretation

of a social worker with all stakeholders (e.g., colleagues, supervisor, clients). The aim of reflexive

participation is not to reveal an objective truth, but rather open space to reflect on different truths,

with which and in which all the participants and especially the clients live. Parton and O'Byrne (2000)

mention the willingness of the social worker to share their insights in the living situation with the

client as an important characteristic of a reflexive approach, and consider this social worker's ability

as relational reflexivity.

In the context of reflexive discourse, social work can be understood as the instrument that not only

wants to promote reflection on the process of social work helping professionals. It also places the

responsibility to help clients reflect on their life situations so as to enable them to perform multiple

critical decisions about life. According to Giddens (1992), the objective of such efforts is for citizens of

all classes, ethnicities, abilities, sexual orientation and gender to be able to face questions on the

meaning of life, death, intimacy and personal relationships. The purpose of such social work is the

empowerment of people to enable them to take responsibility for their life and its control in the very

complicated living conditions of late modernity.

7 Conclusion

In this paper we focused on the question: What assumptions about the performance of social work

and more generally the concept of sectoral identity are implied by the selected discourses of

education in social work? It is necessary to say that every discourse is inherently quite specific and

also presents specific concepts of social work. In the following table 2 we attempt to clearly

characterize our findings:

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 52

Table 2

Overview of discourses

General basis

Key value

Evidence-based

discourse

Social work as a

science

Competence-

based discourse

Social work as a

craft

Reflexive

discourse

Social work as

reflecting

partnership

EVIDENCE

COMPETENCE

REFLEXION

Socio-educational

discourse

Social work as

empowering and

development

activity

EMPOWERING/

DEVELOPMENT

Approach to

education

The concept of

identity of SW

The goal is to

educate an expert

who knows what

is best for the

client

Expert profession

The goal is to

educate an expert

who can solve the

problem

Technical

profession

The goal is to

educate an expert

who seeks

understanding

Participating

profession

The goal is to

educate an expert

who deepens

their critical

consciousness

Empowering

profession

In our work, we have tried to identify the general basis, core value, access to education and the

concept of sectoral identity in every discourse. Further, we briefly summarize our findings, which are

presented in figure two.

The socio-educational approach in social work emphasizes the perspective of critical thinking that

enables the empowering of clients and their growth. A key aspect of evidence-based discourse is the

social worker's ability to find evidence that will allow them to devise the best possible intervention.

Competence-based discourse then assumes that it is essential that the social worker handle the

craftsmanship, thanks to which the client will provide the best support. Reflexive discourse is based

on the assumption that the best service can only come from reflecting cooperation.

These discursive bases are subsequently also reflected in the image of the adequate training of social

workers. Socio-educational discourse aims to educate an expert who deepens their critical

consciousness, susceptible to various forms of discrimination, and drawing up strategies to overcome

them and develop the client's potential. Evidence-based discourse identifies an expert who “knows”

and is able to obtain valid information as an ideal social worker. Competence discourse formulates a

vision of the ideal worker as a technically equipped professional who can solve the client's problems.

The ideal of a reflexive discourse is an expert seeking to understand the ambiguous dimensions of

the client's situation. Each of the discourses also represents a different image of the profession.

Socio-educational discourse creates an image of social work as a profession, which aims to empower

individuals and communities, their growth and development of potential. In the case of evidence-

based discourse, social work is depicted as an expert profession. Competence-based discourse then

depicts social work as a profession of tech-savvy experts who solve life problems. Reflexive discourse

represents a vision of social work as a participating profession, in which the best is a solution

achieved by cooperation.

The emergence of this paper was motivated by the search of the context of social work and social

pedagogy. Lyons and Huegler (2012) point out that despite the approximation of social education

and social work, their relationship remains controversial and changeable. This statement is

supported by research analyses conducted by Hämäläinen (2003), Kornbeck and Lumsden (2009),

which identified three different approaches to these relationships: (1) the position of hostile

divergence, within which social work and social pedagogy are two separate disciplines; (2) the

position of convergence where both disciplines are more or less the same, and (3) the position where

Navrátilová & Navrátil / Educational Discourses in Social Work 53

social pedagogy and social work are linked either in a complementary manner or through

subordination involving the management of one of the disciplines.

In terms of the said analysis of interdisciplinary collaboration relationships, our study falls into the

third position in which we point to the mutual permeability of social work and social pedagogy. We

have shown how one specific concept of social pedagogy influenced the educational discourse in

social work.

With our paper we wanted to contribute to the reflection of interdisciplinary cooperation in the field

of education of social workers. We found that the area of education opens up significant

opportunities for this collaboration. The proof of this assertion is the fact that currently one of the

most important educational discourses in social work was created through interaction with the ideas

of social pedagogy.

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